In the following series of blogs I will be discussing the ethics around the practice of terraforming. Discussion and research concerning terraforming is becoming increasingly relevant to the current concerns of human being. No longer is this possibility simply a sci-fi myth, it now presents itself as the next step in the human story. It also places an increasingly urgent demand on science and technology.
Robert Zubrin, former chief engineer of Lockheed Martin, called Mars “a new frontier” while discussing the possibility of making that planet suitable for human life (in York 8). Indeed, the prospect of terraforming distant planets presents to us a new frontier in more ways than one: not only will it be a first in the obvious realms of space exploration and macro-engineering, it will also be a first in the realm of ethics. Up until the past century, ethics has only really had to deal with issues inside the sphere of being we call Earth. The prospect of entering into and living in a different system requires us to explore new ways of thinking about “things-in-themselves”, nature, and our relation to all which is beyond ourselves. Our understanding of these things will greatly affect our values. This paper has four chief objectives: first I will outline how terraforming would work, according to current theory. Secondly I will examine current space policy in order to understand the current ethical approach of spacefaring nations, with a focus on UN treaties and NASA policy. Thirdly I will outline some main approaches to environmental ethics and discuss them in relation to terraforming. Finally, I shall provide my own viewpoint on the matter and suggest what I feel to be the best approach. My thesis is that we must not terraform another planet until we can learn to live harmoniously in our own planet. What we should do is develop “world-houses” or “biodomes” on sterile extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon or Mars, for this is a more respectful approach that can teach us how to live harmoniously in our own planet.
The following bibliography is for the entirety of this series' posts.
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Catchcart, Richard B [2]. "A Macro-Engineering Concept to Maintain Desirable Planetary Biospheres". Speculations in Science and Technology. No. 21, pp. 53-62. California: Chapman and Hall, 1998.
Chyba, Christopher F. and Cynthia B. Phillips. “Europa as an Abode of Life”. Origins of Life and Evolution of theBiosphere. No. 32, pp.47-68. Netherlands: Kluwer, 2002.
Cocknell, Charles and Gerda Horneck. “A Planetary Park System for Mars”. Space Policy. No. 20, pp. 291-295. Great Britain: Elsevier, 2004.
Fogg, Martyn J. "Terraforming Mars: A Review of Current Research". Advances in Space Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 415-420. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1998.
Fogg, Martyn J. “The Ethical Dimensions of Space Settlement”. Space Policy. No. 16. pp. 205-211. Great Britain: Elsevier, 2000.
Friedl, Lawrence and John Conger. “Space Visions from a New Generation”. Space Policy. No. 12, pp. 93-95. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1996.
Friedmann, E. Imre and R. Ocampo-Friedmann. "A Primitive Cyanobacterium as Pioneer Microorganism for Terraforming Mars". Advances in Space Research. Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 243-246. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1995.
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Hartmann, William K. “Space Exploration and Environmental Issues”. Beyond Spaceship Earth. Ed. Eugene C. Hargrove. pp. 119-139. San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1986.
Haynes, Robert H. “Ecce Ecopoiesis: playing God on Mars”. Moral Expertise. Ed. Don Macniven. pp. 161-183. New York: Routledge, 1990.
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Lupisella, Mark. “The Rights of Martians”. Space Policy. No. 13. pp. 89-94. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1997.
Marshall, Alan. “Development and Imperialism in Space”. Space Policy. Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 41-52. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1995.
Mancinelli, Rocco L. “Planetary Protection and the Search For Life Beneath the Surface of Mars”. Advances in Space Research. Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 103-107. Great Britain: Elsevier, 2003.
McKay, Christopher P. “Does Mars have Rights?”. Moral Expertise. Ed. Don Macniven. pp. 184-197. New York: Routledge, 1990.
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Naess, Arne and George Sessions. “The Deep Ecology Platform”. Philosophical Dialogues. Ed. Nina Witoszek and Andrew Brennan. pp. 8-9. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999.
Potter, John F. “Seeking a New Home”. The Environmentalist. No. 20. pp.191-194. Netherlands: Kluwer, 2000.
Rolston III, Holmes. “The Preservation of Natural Value in the Solar System. Beyond Spaceship Earth. Ed. Eugene C. Hargrove. pp. 140-182. San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1986.
Taylor, R.L.S. "Why Mars? Even under the condition of critical factor constraint engineering technology may permit the establishment and maintenance of an inhabitable ecosystem". Advances in Space Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 421-433. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1998.
Turner, Fredrick. “Terraforming and the Coming Charm Industries”. Advances in Space Research. Vol. 22, No. 3, pp.433-439. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1998.
Warren, Karen. “Ecofeminist Philosophy and Deep Ecology”. Philosophical Dialogues. Ed. Nina Witoszek and Andrew Brennan. pp. 255-269. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999.
Williamson, Mark. “Protecting the Space Environment: Are We Doing Enough?”. Space Policy. No. 14, pp. 5-8. Great Britain: Elsevier, 1998.
York, Paul. “The Ethics of Terraforming”. Philosophy Now. Issue 38, Oct./Nov. 2002: pp. 6-9.
United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space. New York: United Nations, 2002. Last Accessed: November 14, 2009. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf
“Terraforming Mars”. NASA Aerospace Scholars Program. Last Accessed: April 11, 2006. http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/10/10.cfm
“Planetary Protection Provisions for Robotic Extraterrestrial Missions”. NASA Procedural Requirements. NPR 8020.12C. April 27, 2005. Last Accessed: November 14, 2009. http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?Internal_ID=N_PR_8020_012C_&page_name=main
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